Malaria Overview

Malaria is an infectious disease caused by a parasite, Plasmodium, which infects red blood cells. Malaria is characterized by cycles of chills, fever, pain and sweating. Historical records suggest malaria has infected humans since the beginning of mankind. The name "mal 'aria" (meaning "bad air" in Italian) was first used in English in 1740 by H. Walpole when describing the disease. The term was shortened to "malaria" in the 20th century. C. Laveran in 1880 was the first to identify the parasites in human blood. In 1889, R. Ross discovered that mosquitoes transmitted malaria. Of the four species of malaria, the most serious type is Plasmodium falciparum malaria. It can be life-threatening. The other three species of malaria (P. vivax, P. malariae, and P. ovale) are generally less serious and are not life-threatening.

Symptoms:
The symptoms characteristic of malaria include flu-like illness with fever, chills, muscle aches, and headache. Some patients develop nausea, vomiting, cough, and diarrhea. Cycles of chills, fever, and sweating that repeat every one, two, or three days are typical. There can sometimes be vomiting, diarrhea, coughing, and yellowing (jaundice) of the skin and whites of the eyes due to destruction of red blood cells and liver cells.
People with severe P. falciparum malaria can develop bleeding problems, shock, liver or kidney failure, central nervous system problems, coma, and can die from the infection or its complications. Cerebral malaria (coma, or altered mental status or seizures) can occur with severe P. falciparum infection. It is lethal if not treated quickly; even with treatment, about 15%-20% die.

Uncomplicated Malaria:
The classical (but rarely observed) malaria attack lasts 6-10 hours. It consists of:
* a cold stage (sensation of cold, shivering)
* a hot stage (fever, headaches, vomiting; seizures in young children)
* and finally a sweating stage (sweats, return to normal temperature, tiredness)
Classically (but infrequently observed) the attacks occur every second day with the "tertian" parasites (P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. ovale) and every third day with the "quartan" parasite (P. malariae).

More commonly, the patient presents with a combination of the following symptoms:
* Fever
* Chills
* Sweats
* Headaches
* Nausea and vomiting
* Body aches
* General malaise.

In countries where cases of malaria are infrequent, these symptoms may be attributed to influenza, a cold, or other common infections, especially if malaria is not suspected. Conversely, in countries where malaria is frequent, residents often recognize the symptoms as malaria and treat themselves without seeking diagnostic confirmation ("presumptive treatment").
Physical findings may include:
* Elevated temperature
* Perspiration
* Weakness
* Enlarged spleen.
In P. falciparum malaria, additional findings may include:
* Mild jaundice
* Enlargement of the liver
* Increased respiratory rate.

Diagnosis of malaria depends on the demonstration of parasites on a blood smear examined under a microscope. In P. falciparum malaria, additional laboratory findings may include mild anemia, mild decrease in blood platelets (thrombocytopenia), elevation of bilirubin, elevation of aminotransferases, albuminuria, and the presence of abnormal bodies in the urine (urinary "casts").

Severe Malaria:
Severe malaria occurs when P. falciparum infections are complicated by serious organ failures or abnormalities in the patient's blood or metabolism. The manifestations of severe malaria include:
* Cerebral malaria, with abnormal behavior, impairment of consciousness, seizures, coma, or other neurologic abnormalities
* Severe anemia due to hemolysis (destruction of the red blood cells)
* Hemoglobinuria (hemoglobin in the urine) due to hemolysis
* Pulmonary edema (fluid buildup in the lungs) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), which may occur even after the parasite counts have decreased in response to treatment
* Abnormalities in blood coagulation and thrombocytopenia (decrease in blood platelets)
* Cardiovascular collapse and shock
Other manifestations that should raise concern are:
* Acute kidney failure
* Hyperparasitemia, where more than 5% of the red blood cells are infected by malaria parasites
* Metabolic acidosis (excessive acidity in the blood and tissue fluids), often in association with hypoglycemia
* Hypoglycemia (low blood glucose). Hypoglycaemia may also occur in pregnant women with uncomplicated malaria, or after treatment with quinine.
Severe malaria occurs most often in persons who have no immunity to malaria or whose immunity has decreased. These include all residents of areas with low or no malaria transmission, and young children and pregnant women in areas with high transmission.
In all areas, severe malaria is a medical emergency and should be treated urgently and aggressively.

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Treatment Of Migraine

The physician analyzes the patient's migraine history to devise an appropriate treatment program. The goals of treatment are to prevent or reduce the number of migraines (called prophylactic treatment) and to alleviate symptoms and shorten the duration of the migraine
(called abortive treatment).

Prophylactic Treatment:
*Preventative medication may be prescribed for patients who have frequent headaches (3 or more a month) that do not respond to abortive treatment. Studies have shown that as many as 40% of these patients may benefit from preventative treatment.
*Using one medication (monotherapy) is tried first, but a combination of medicines may be necessary. Many of these medications have adverse side effects. If migraines become controlled, the dosage is often reduced or the drug discontinued.
*Beta blockers (e.g., propranolol [Inderal®], atenolol [Tenormin®]) are the preferred medications. These drugs produce an effect on heart rate. They should not be taken by patients with asthma and should be used with caution in patients with diabetes.
*Side effects include gastrointestinal upset, insomnia, low blood pressure (hypotension), slowed heart rate (bradycardia), and sexual dysfunction. Some beta blockers pass into breast milk and may cause problems in nursing infants.
*Antiseizure drugs such as valproic acid (Depakote®), topiramate (Topamax®), and gabapentin (Neurontin®) may be used to treat migraine.
*Side effects include nausea, gastrointestinal upset, sedation, liver damage, and tremors.
*Calcium channel blockers (e.g., verapamil, amlodipine [Norvasc®]) inhibit artery dilation and block the release of serotonin. They should not be taken by patients with heart failure or heart block.
*Side effects include constipation, flushing, low blood pressure, rash, and nausea.
*Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs; e.g., amitryptaline [Elavil®], nortryptaline [Pamelor®], desipramine [Norpramin®]) block serotonin reabsorption and take 2–3 weeks be effective.
*Side effects include the following:
* Constipation
* Dry mouth
* Low blood pressure (hypotension)
* Increased heart rate (tachycardia)
* Urinary retention

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Migraine

Overview:
A migraine headache is a throbbing or pulsating headache that is often one sided (unilateral) and associated with nausea; vomiting; sensitivity to light, sound, and smells; sleep disruption; and depression. Attacks are often recurrent and tend to become less severe as the migraine sufferer ages.

Types:
Migraines are classified according to the symptoms they produce. The two most common types are migraine with aura and migraine without aura. Less common types include the following:
* Abdominal migraine
* Basilar artery migraine
* Carotidynia
* Headache-free migraine (auro without migraine)
* Ophthalmoplegic migraine/Ocular migraine
* Status migrainosus
*Some women experience migraine headaches just prior to or during menstruation. These headaches, which are called menstrual migraines, may be related to hormonal changes and often do not occur or lessen during pregnancy. Other women develop migraines for the first time during pregnancy or after menopause.
*Migraine with aura is characterized by a neurological phenomenon (aura) that is experienced 10 to 30 minutes before the headache. Most auras are visual and are described as bright shimmering lights around objects or at the edges of the field of vision (called scintillating scotomas) or zigzag lines, castles (teichopsia), wavy images, or hallucinations. Others experience temporary vision loss. Nonvisual auras include motor weakness, speech or language abnormalities, dizziness, vertigo, and tingling or numbness (parasthesia) of the face, tongue, or extremities.
*Migraine without aura is the most prevalent type and may occur on one or both sides (bilateral) of the head. Tiredness or mood changes may be experienced the day before the headache. Nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light (photophobia) often accompany migraine without aura.
Abdominal migraine is most common in children with a family history of migraine. Symptoms include abdominal pain without a gastrointestinal cause (may last up to 72 hours), nausea, vomiting, and flushing or paleness (pallor). Children who have abdominal migraine often develop typical migraine as they age.
*Basilar artery migraine involves a disturbance of the basilar artery in the brainstem. Symptoms include severe headache, vertigo, double vision, slurred speech, and poor muscle coordination. This type occurs primarily in young people.
*Carotidynia, also called lower-half headache or facial migraine, produces deep, dull, aching, and sometimes piercing pain in the jaw or neck. There is usually tenderness and swelling over the carotid artery in the neck. Episodes can occur several times weekly and last a few minutes to hours. This type occurs more commonly in older people. Doppler ultrasound studies of the carotid arteries are normal.
*Headache-free migraine is characterized by the presence of aura without headache. This occurs in patients with a history of migraine with aura.
*Ophthalmoplegic migraine begins with a headache felt in the eye and is accompanied by vomiting. As the headache progresses, the eyelid droops (ptosis) and nerves responsible for eye movement become paralyzed. Ptosis may persist for days or weeks.
*Status migraine is a rare type involving intense pain that usually lasts longer than 72 hours.
The patient may require hospitalization.

Incidence and Prevalence:
Migraines afflict about 30 million people in the United States. They may occur at any age, but usually begin between the ages of 10 and 40 and diminish after age 50. Some people experience several migraines a month, while others have only a few migraines throughout their lifetime. Approximately 75% of migraine sufferers are women.

Migraine Causes:
The cause of migraine is unknown. The condition may result from a series of reactions in the central nervous system caused by changes in the body or in the environment. There is often a family history of the disorder, suggesting that migraine sufferers may inherit sensitivity to triggers that produce inflammation in the blood vessels and nerves around the brain and scalp, causing pain.

Triggers:
A trigger is any stimulus that initiates a process or reaction. Commonly identified migraine triggers include the following:
* Alcohol (e.g., red wine)
* Environmental factors (e.g., weather, altitude, time zone changes)
* Exertion
* Foods that contain caffeine (e.g., coffee, chocolate), monosodium glutamate (MSG; used to enhance flavor in several processed foods and in Chinese food), and nitrates (found in processed foods, hot dogs)
* Glare, contrasting patterns
* Hormonal changes in women
* Hunger
* Lack of sleep
* Medications (over-the-counter and prescription)
* Perfume
* Stress

Signs and Symptoms:
Migraine headache pain is often described as throbbing or pulsating pain that is intensified by routine physical activity, coughing, straining, or lowering the head. The headache is often so severe that it interferes with daily activity and may awaken the person. The attack is debilitating, and migraine sufferers are often left feeling tired and weak once the headache has passed.

*A migraine headache typically begins in a specific area on one side of the head, then spreads and builds in intensity over 1 to 2 hours and then gradually subsides. It can last up to 24 hours, and in some cases, several days.
*There may be accompanying symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, sensitivity to light (photophobia), or sensitivity to sound (phonophobia). Hands and feet may feel cold and sweaty and unusual odors may be intolerable.

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An Overview about "The Diabetes"

Diabetes is a serious disease that affects an increasingly large number of people nowadays. There are numerous people officially registered at diabetes centers from all over the world. The effects of this disease are, however of the most diverse and they may vary from minor glycemia problems to important glycemia dysfunctions that can also lead to the death of the patient in the most grave cases. There are numerous treatments for this disease but this, however, has not reduced the overall number of people affected by diabetes. Researchers are still trying to prevent its causes but most of the times people get diabetes caused by stress and by a disordered rhythm of life. And this is very difficult to control by medical methods.

Causes:One of the most important causes that lead to diabetes is the disordered nutrition system. This unhealthy nutrition regime includes abuses of many kinds: abuse of sweets and foods that include a lot of sugar, abuse of bread which also includes ingredients that contribute to raising the glycemia level and also the abuse of fat foods that also leads to high cholesterol problems. Actually high glycemia and high cholesterol usually go hand in hand, as people who suffer from one are most likely to suffer from the other as well. High glycemia is hence, the main cause for diabetes. People are advised to check their glycemia by medical analyses at least twice a year.

The other cause which does not depend on the glycemia level at all is stress. High stress leads to high glycemia on a nervous, psychical basis.

The two main causes have the same level of gravity and of intensity. They must however be taken into consideration by anyone, as nothing is more important than health. These numerous causes are very serious but at the same time they are controllable as well. That means people have the power of controlling their daily diets and alimentation. For this, the need of an education system regarding a healthy life is vital to be done.

Symptoms:There are some important symptoms that alert high glycemia and further on, the presence of diabetes in an organism. Among these symptoms the most common and obvious are the change of metabolism and the reduction of saliva in the person’s mouth. Among the symptoms there is also the great appetite for sugar and for sweet aliments. The modification of metabolism reflects at the beginning an important loss of weight and later on there comes instability in the weight of the patient. People suffering from diabetes cannot easily maintain their standard weight. In advanced forms of diabetes people modify their weight considerably.
Regarding the reduction of saliva that most patients suffering from diabetes present, this symptom is one of the earliest ones to appear. This signals high glycemia from the very beginning of the installation of diabetes. People suffering from diabetes often feel their mouth dry especially during the night and have the need of drinking many liquids.

Also, the increased appetite for sugar and sweets is a notable symptom of diabetes, as it reflects the difficulty of saturating organism with sugar. Actually this appetite is only a sensation that some people suffering in an advanced stage of diabetes solve by injecting insulin regularly into their bodies.

Precaution:There are many precaution measures that one can take in order to avoid diabetes. One important precaution is the special attention at one’s daily diet and nutritional system. By having a balanced alimentary regime people can easily avoid diabetes and many other diseases that can derive from bad alimentation.

People are also advised to have a lot of physical exercise, as studies have shown that the ones who practice sports are less threatened by the risk of getting diabetes. This disease is characteristic for sedentary people. The lack of physical activity can easily lead to diabetes.

By a healthy diet and by physical workout people can, hence avoid getting diabetes. Also, people are advised to take theirmedical tests at least twice a year in order to become aware of the eventual problems that they may have up to that certain point.

Treatment:
There are numerous treatments found for diabetes so far. The pills taken for lowering the glycemia level are the most common treatment. They are used by people suffering from diabetes in an early stage of the disease. The pills can be usual ones that can be found in all the pharmacies, or naturist pills, the ones based on natural ingredients only. These pills are said to lower the level of glycemia from the patient’s blood. That is why they must be administrated and taken by respecting a strict schedule.

Another common treatment for diabetes is the insulin. This substance is usually injected in the organism and people who are prescribed insulin are usually suffering from and advanced form of diabetes. Insulin is prescribed when the glycemia level has reached a dangerous point. Another method of administrating insulin is the plaster method. There are special plasters in pharmacies that contain the necessary dose of insulin for a certain amount of time. Some people use plasters instead of the injection method, since the plaster method has become very popular and so easy to use.

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Ephedra-For Weight Loss

#.Americans are buzzing about the FDA’s recent decision to reverse the ban on Ephedra and ephedrine supplements in the United States.
#.Known as the “world’s oldest medicine” ... Ephedra has been used for thousands of years for its variety of healing properties.
#.While ephedra is not a cure-all, it has been successfully used in treating hundreds of afflictions, including some that may surprise you. When the average person hears the word “Ephedra” they may think of two things; weight loss and banned.
#,Yet there are millions of people who have safely used ephedra to burn fat and lose weight, who were devastated when the U.S. Food and Drug Administration imposed a ban on ephedra in early 2004.
#.The FDA claimed a high death rate attributed to the use (or misuse) of ephedra and ephedrine — the main “active” ingredient in the ephedra plant. However, further research showed that only five of these deaths could be attributed to ephedra use, so the ban was lifted.
#.To put the number of adverse events into perspective, consider that over 12 million people were reportedly using ephedra during 1999, without any harmful side-effects.
#.Ephedra has thermogenic "fat-burning" qualities, which means it can be used to speed up your body metabolism. This natural increase in metabolism, is what results in virtually effortless weight loss and has earned ephedra the nickname “miracle fat burner.”
#.Unlike other weight loss products on the market — ephedra helps the body retain lean muscle mass. The thermogenic qualities of ephedra also improve the body’s ability to eliminate toxins (through urine and sweat), which can reduce unnecessary water retention.
#.What you may not know is that the ephedra plant has been used to treat a number of respiratory and circulatory conditions, including asthma, allergies (such as hay fever) and the common cold.
#.Ephedrine — or the synthetic equivalent called pseudoephedrine — can be found in many over-the-counter cold and allergy medications, including Sudafed. Ephedra is a vasodilator, meaning it relaxes (or dilates) blood vessels, which allows blood to flow more easily, and allows nasal passages to open wider.
#.In Chinese medicine, ephedra has been used for thousands of years to increase blood flow and improve circulation... Athletes have used ephedra for centuries, since it helps build muscle and burn fat.
#.Many people report increased energy and stamina while using ephedra, which increases overall athletic performance. And Ephedra is generally considered safe when adhering to the recommended doses.
#.Since ephedra is a very powerful and effective supplement, you should check with your physician before using ephedra if you have any of the following conditions:
* Anxiety
* High blood pressure
* Glaucoma
* Heart disease
Contraindication:
Do not take ephedra if you are pregnant or lactating. Check with your physician before beginning any weight loss program.

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Crohn's Diseases

Crohn's disease is generally characterized by the formation of ulcers (open sores) anywhere in the small and large intestines (commonly known as the colon). Ulcerative colitis on the other hand is characterized by formation of ulcers mainly in the lower portions of the large colon. The differentiating feature is between Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis is the area that is affected by these two disorders. While Crohn's disease does not affect the rectum or may only affect the regions around the rectum, the ulcers associated with ulcerative colitis often begin at the rectum and extend to the other regions of the large intestine (especially the lowermost regions). Another distinguishing feature between these two disorders lies in the curability. While surgery can cure ulcerative colitis in most instances, there is no cure for Crohn’s disease (only symptoms can be treated effectively).

Treatment:
Crohn’s disease and ulcerative colitis are chronic disorders that persist for a long duration. However, effective treatment can generally result in complete recovery from the symptoms of IBD and the individual can lead a normal life.
Anti-inflammatory drugs and drugs to suppress the body’s immune system are generally the first line of treatment of mild to moderate IBD. These help in reduction of the inflammation in the colon and thereby decrease other associated symptoms.
Administration of medications that belong to the group of anti-diarrheals, laxatives, and pain relievers are also commonly advised for individuals suffering from mild to moderate forms of IBD. Antibiotic medications may be advised if any underlying infection is suspected or identified during the diagnostic procedures.

A well balanced diet that supplies adequate amounts of calories, vitamins, minerals and other essential nutrients should be consumed to prevent the occurrence of malnutrition. Adequate consumption of water and other fluids is also advised.
Severe cases of IBD may require hospital admission for appropriate care and prevention of complications. Surgery may be advised in some severe cases of ulcerative colitis wherein removal of the affected portion can often cure the condition. However, a similar result cannot be obtained with Crohn’s disease and hence, surgery is reserved as a last option for treatment of Crohn’s disease.

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Cardiotonic Drugs

Inotropics and cardiotonics are medications that increase the strength of the muscle contractions that pump blood from the heart. Until recently, the inotropic drug digitalis was the main medical treatment for heart failure.
Digitalis
A drug derived from the foxglove plant that has been used to treat heart disease for more than 300 years - makes the heart's contractions stronger, may reduce heart size, and can lessen the frequency or severity of some heart arrhythmias. Digitalis has not been shown to improve survival of heart patients, but it does relieve symptoms and may reduce hospitalizations. Many experts now prescribe drugs proven to prolong life, such as an ACE inhibitor or beta-blocker before digitalis is tried. Digitalis may be useful, however, especially if used in combination with other agents for patients with:
* Systolic dysfunction characterized by a low ejection fraction, or EF (the percentage, or fraction, of blood pumped out of the heart with each beat)
* Heart failure and atrial fibrillation, a rapid, irregular heartbeat arising in the upper chamber. Digoxin (Lanoxin) is the most commonly prescribed form of digitalis.
A research study reported that low-dose digoxin may be as effective as higher doses for some patients with mild to moderate heart failure . If side effects exist, but are mild, patients may be able to continue digitalis.
In one study, it was found that patients who stopped taking digoxin after using it in combination with ACE inhibitors were at risk for worsening heart failure.
While most medications are generally safe when taken as prescribed, all have potential side effects, and some can be dangerous. Digitalis, for example, can cause abnormal heart rhythms that may be life-threatening. Blood tests may be needed to monitor its levels in the blood. Digitalis, many other medications and some non-prescription substances also can interact with other drugs. It is important that your healthcare provider knows every medication you are taking. You also should not discontinue a medication without consulting with your healthcare provider, and report any worrisome side effects or symptoms immediately.
Common Inotropic and Cardiotonic Drugs:
* Amrinone (Inocor®)
* Digitoxin (Crystodigin®)
* Digoxin (Lanoxin®, Lanoxicaps®)
* Dobutamine (Dobutrex®)
* Milrinone (Primacor®)
Root Of Administration:
Some drugs may be administered intravenously (IV), which means they are infused continuously through an IV tube, or catheter, into a vein. Dobutamine, for example,may be administered in the home with a device called a portable infusion pump.
Treating heart failure at an early stage offers the best chance for a longer and better quality life. Three classes of medications have been the standard treatments for heart failure: ACE inhibitor and angiotensin receptor blocker (Renal-Angiotensin System blockers); diuretics and digitalis.

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NSAIDs or NAIDs,

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, usually abbreviated to NSAIDs or NAIDs, are drugs with analgesic, antipyretic (lowering an elevated body temperature and relieving pain without impairing consciousness) and, in higher doses, with anti-inflammatory effects (reducing inflammation). The term "non-steroidal" is used to distinguish these drugs from steroids, which (among a broad range of other effects) have a similar eicosanoid-depressing, anti-inflammatory action. As analgesics, NSAIDs are unusual in that they are non-narcotic.The most prominent members of this group of drugs are aspirin, ibuprofen, and naproxen partly because they are available over-the-counter in many areas.
Classification:
1.Salicylates
Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) · Aloxiprin · Benorylate · Diflunisal · Ethenzamide · Magnesium salicylate · Methyl salicylate · Salsalate · Salicin · Salicylamide · Sodium salicylate
2.Arylalkanoic acids
Diclofenac · Aceclofenac · Acemetacin · Alclofenac · Bromfenac · Etodolac · Indometacin · Indometacin farnesil · Nabumetone · Oxametacin · Proglumetacin · Sulindac · Tolmetin
3.2-Arylpropionic acids
(profens)
Ibuprofen · Alminoprofen · Benoxaprofen · Carprofen · Dexibuprofen · Dexketoprofen · Fenbufen · Fenoprofen · Flunoxaprofen · Flurbiprofen · Ibuproxam · Indoprofen† · Ketoprofen · Ketorolac · Loxoprofen · Miroprofen · Naproxen · Oxaprozin · Pirprofen · Suprofen · Tarenflurbil · Tiaprofenic acid
4.N-Arylanthranilic acids
(fenamic acids)
Mefenamic acid · Flufenamic acid · Meclofenamic acid · Tolfenamic acid
5.Pyrazolidine derivatives
Phenylbutazone · Ampyrone · Azapropazone · Clofezone · Kebuzone · Metamizole† · Mofebutazone · Oxyphenbutazone · Phenazone · Sulfinpyrazone
6.Oxicams
Piroxicam · Droxicam · Lornoxicam · Meloxicam · Tenoxicam · Ampiroxicam
7.COX-2 inhibitors
Celecoxib · Deracoxib‡ · Etoricoxib · Firocoxib‡ · Lumiracoxib† · Parecoxib · Rofecoxib† · Valdecoxib
8.Sulfonanilides
Nimesulide
9..Topically used products
Bendazac · Diclofenac · Etofenamate · Felbinac · Flurbiprofen · Ibuprofen · Indometacin · Ketoprofen · Naproxen · Piroxicam · Suprofen
10.Others
Fluproquazone
Mechanism Of Action:
Most NSAIDs act as non-selective inhibitors of the enzyme cyclooxygenase, inhibiting both the cyclooxygenase-1 (COX-1) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) isoenzymes. Cyclooxygenase catalyzes the formation of prostaglandins and thromboxane from arachidonic acid (itself derived from the cellular phospholipid bilayer by phospholipase A2). Prostaglandins act (among other things) as messenger molecules in the process of inflammation. This mechanism of action was elucidated by John Vane, who later received a Nobel Prize for his work (see Mechanism of action of aspirin). A newly discovered COX-3 may also have some role.
Uses:
NSAIDs are usually indicated for the treatment of acute or chronic conditions where pain and inflammation are present. Research continues into their potential for prevention of colorectal cancer, and treatment of other conditions, such as cancer and cardiovascular disease.
* Rheumatoid arthritis
* Osteoarthritis
* Inflammatory arthropathies (e.g. ankylosing spondylitis, psoriatic arthritis, Reiter's syndrome)
* Acute gout
* Dysmenorrhoea (menstrual pain)
* Metastatic bone pain
* Headache and migraine
* Postoperative pain
* Mild-to-moderate pain due to inflammation and tissue injury
* Pyrexia (fever)
* Ileus
* Renal colic
* They are also given to neonate infants whose ductus arteriosus is not closed within 24 hours of birth
Adverse Effect:
Advedse drug Reaction
Dyspepsia
Inflammatory Bowel Disease like Ulcerative Colitis & Crohn's disease

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Asthma Attacks

An acute asthma attack can render a person incapable of normal functioning for a while. In many cases, bronchodilators work well to provide relief.

At the same time, there are claims that the severity and frequency of asthma attacks reduced drastically when patients started doing certain kinds of breathing exercises.

Are these claims really true?

Breathing exercises for asthma relief fall under what is called complementary and alternative medicine.

There are several types of breathing exercises available, including yoga, biofeedback training and more. Since many people apparently benefited from these exercises, they gained a certain amount of credibility.

However, asthma attacks are caused by inflamed muscles and lung tissues. Can breathing exercises help in such situations?

Sometime back, a publication called Current Opinion in Pulmonary Medicine carried a research report on this topic. According to that study, the answer is yes, breathing exercises can help to a certain extent.

They found that breathing exercises helped improve lung function and indirectly, the quality of life for asthma patients. The authors concluded that this form of complementary therapy warrants further study and that breath training can be a useful adjunct to normal medication.

According to the authors, of various types of breath training, pranayama appears to offer the most benefits. Pranayama is associated with yoga and in fact, many yoga postures incorporate breath control of one kind or another.

Several studies tracked adult asthma patients who were given pranayama training. A significant proportion of these adults showed improvements in asthma symptoms. However, their lung function did not appear to improve. Peak flow meters were used to measure lung function.

Other techniques like muscle relaxation and the Buteyko breathing technique also produced improvements in symptoms.

Some studies have found that muscle relaxation helps patients breathe more easily while reducing symptoms of asthma.

Researchers found that even six months after receiving relaxation training, the improvements in symptoms and breathing patterns were apparent.

A couple of other studies have shown that muscle relaxation training helped cut down on the need for bronchodilators. They also found that the patients showed improvement in their maximum inspiratory pressure, which is a key measure of lung function.

Statistics show that as many as one third of asthmatics have at least some degree of dysfunctional breathing. That is why biofeedback training, which promotes correct breathing, generates health benefits.

Such training may not help eliminate asthma attacks, but proper breathing does have a major impact on the patient's experience of life and overall health.

The study concluded that regular medication and monitoring by a healthcare professional must always be a key part of asthma management. In other words, there is not enough evidence to suggest that alternative methods can be a complete substitute for traditional medication.

At the same time, there are indicators that complementary methods like breathing exercises can play a useful role. Utilizing these methods under competent medical supervision may help asthma patients see improvements in their condition.

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Aerobic Exericse

Aerobic exercise is important at all ages. You are never told too old to begin an aerobic exercise program and to experience the often dramatic benefits. There are, of course, a few special considerations involved in beginning anexercise program later in life. If you have been de-conditioned by avoiding exercise for some time, you are likely to start at a lower level of physical ability than would a younger person. You may be more susceptible to fractures if you fall and injure yourself. You may have an underlying medical condition that limits your choice of exercise activities. You may need to talk with your doctor for advice as to exactly how to proceed. Nevertheless, at your age, you need aerobic exercise more than ever, and there is almost always a way to get it.

Some people worry that they have only so many heartbeats in a lifetime, and that exercise will increase their heart rates and use them up. In fact, because of the decrease in resting heart rate, the fit individual uses 10 to 25% fewer heartbeats in the course of a day, even after allowing for the increase during exercise periods. Aerobic training also builds good muscle tone, improves reflexes, improves balance, burn fat, and makes the bones stronger.

Much has been made of reaching a particular heart rate during exercise, one that avoids too much stress and yet provides the “training effect.” Usually it is difficult to count your pulse while you are exercising, but you can check it by counting the pulse in your wrist for 15 seconds immediately after you stop exercising and then multiplying by 4. more important, as your training progresses, you may wish to count your resting pulse, perhaps in bed in the morning before you get up. The goal here is aresting heart rate of about 60 beats per minute. An individual who is not fit will typically have a resting heart rate of 75 or so.

There are easier ways of telling how you are doing. Endurance activity is a bit uncomfortable at first, and then becomes quite comfortable as your training program persists. It is not “all out.” You should be able to carry on a conversation while you are exercising. On the other hand, you should be breaking a sweat during eachexercise period. The sweating indicates that the exercise has raised your internal body temperature.

Aerobic exercise must be sustained activity. You need at least 10 or 15 minutes of exercise each session. You can progress up to 200 minutes per week, spread out over five to seven sessions; beyond this amount little further benefits seems to result.

Your choice of a particular aerobic activity depends on your own desires and your present level of fitness. The activity should be one that can be graded; that is, you should be able to easily and gradually increase the effort and the duration of theexercise.

Walking by itself not always an aerobic exercise, but it provides very important health benefits. If you haven’t been exercising at all, start by walking. For seniors, a gradual increase in walking activity, up to a minimum of 150 minutes per week, usually should precede attempting a more strenuousaerobic program. Walking briskly can be aerobic , but you need to push the pace quite a bit to break a sweat and get your heart rate up. Walking uphill or upstairs can quite quickly become aerobic.

Jogging, swimming, and brisk walking are appropriate for all ages, and many seniors of all ages participate. Master swim programs are increasingly popular.

Inside the house, stationary bicycles or cross-country ski machines are good. Some individuals like to use radio earphones while they exercise; others exercise indoors while watching evening news. While almost any activity from gardening to tennis can be aerobic for some, remember that the exercise can’t be “start and stop.” Aerobic activity can’t come in bursts; it must be sustained for at least a 10- to 15-minute period.

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Benefits Of Mangosteen Pills

Mangosteen, known as "Queen of all fruit", has been used for centuries by Asian health practitioners for its nutritional benefits and delicious flavor. It is known as an antioxidant-rich fruit. Using of various supplements that contain components ofmangosteen is one of the popular ways to take care of health. An additional argument is that fresh mangosteen is difficult to transport, and the tinned fruit loses a great part of useful properties. The decision of this problem is mangosteen pills.

Mangosteen - Queen of All Fruit

Mangosteen is related to typically Thai fruit. During the season of rains (April - September) the markets of the West Indies countries are full with mangosteen fruit. Despite of the name is similar to mango, these plants are not relatives. Mangosteen (Garcinia mangostana L.) is from Guttiferae family, which includes over 200 kinds of edible fruit.

Mangosteen is considered to be one of the tastiest fruit in the world, but nevertheless it is cultivated on the limited areas, mainly in Thailand wheremangosteen plantations occupy totally more than nine thousand of hectare. Also mangosteen is grown on the Philippines, in Indonesia, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Honduras.

Mangosteen trees bear the first fruit relatively late at the age of 9 until they are 20 years old. A fructifying mangosteen tree is a tremendous view: bright round purple fruit emphasized by thick dark green leaves look wonderful. The diameter of mangosteen is about 6-9 sm, and it weighs from 80 up to 200 grams. The peel is very dense, 5 mm thick (one should not try to open the fruit with his teeth). It takes up approximately 2/3 of the fruit.

To reach the pulp, it is necessary to thrust a knife in the scape area and to divide the peel in half. Considerable efforts to cut the peel are worthy of it, since under the peel you will see white, or cream, juicy cloves (there are usually 5-8 ones) with oily, sweet, but not luscious, sometimes a bit astringent taste. To tell the truth, there is no fruit to comparemangosteen taste with, but believe - it is delicious. You should eat the fruit cautiously, since in some cloves there are rather large dark pits. The more cloves are in the fruit, the less pits it contains.

There are several dishes mangosteen may be added to fruit salads, compotes, it is possible to add it to cocktails with champagne, and it also may be preserved. There is only one problem aboutmangosteen . Some fruit can be ill, and in this case their pulp becomes dark, almost yellow, sticky, with unpleasant taste and smell. The reason of this disease is still unknown.

What is the Mangosteen Pill

Mangosteen pill is a very popular biologically active supplement due to curative properties of the fruit. Mangosteen pills are derived from the peel and the seeds. Mangosteen juice is pleasant, peel is not; but in fact it is the peel where the maximum of useful substances is concentrated. Therefore consumers are offered tablets.Mangosteen peel contains such useful substances as xanthones. These are powerful antioxidants, which effectively struggle with oncological diseases and possess antibacterial action. Besides,mangosteen is vascular relaxant that struggles against such illnesses as ischemic heart disease, hypertension, atherosclerosis, thrombosis, and so on. Many people strain to spend a lot of money and to accept a large amount of various supplements to provide their body with a daily norm of various substances. Mangosteen pills helps you to save time and money and to supply human organism with all the necessary substances.

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Improves Your Fitness Level

More and more people have wondered whether Pilates is a form of exercise that can improve their muscle fitness and increase their strength. Experts believe that Pilates can indeed reduce a person's stress levels while increasing his or her mental awareness and body's flexibility. But, when people are asked ifPilates is a suitable form of exercise to increase fitness levels, responses vary greatly. Some think that probably is not the best type of exercise to do the job. But, those who have tried it assert that Pilates can definitely make your body feel stronger.

If you would like to really put your daily fitness routine in overdrive and get better results than you ever have in the past, you really should consider addingPilates exercises into your home fitness workouts. Unlike traditional weight building exercises, with Pilates your body is controlled by your breathing. Even if this sounds surprisingly simple, while you are not going to produce the bulked up muscles of some weight lifters,Pilates will certainly help you increase your muscles' strength. In particular, some Pilates balance postures require enormous muscle control in order to prevent you from falling over. This muscle control actually helps you build and strengthen your whole body. Aerobicexercise is great for burning calories, while strength training works very well for strengthening your muscle groups, but Pilates goes far beyond either of those forms of exercise and can benefit you both physically and mentally.

In addition to all its other benefits, Pilates can help you improve muscle fitness and make you actually feel and be stronger. Whether you choose to use it as your primary means of strength training or you want it to supplement your other exercises,Pilates can help your muscles grow fit, balanced, and strong. In fact, many poses in Pilates are done very slowly or you are required to stay in a specific posture during several breaths. In fact, those who have experienced it, support that it is much more challenging to your muscles to hold a pose or repeat it slowly than it is to allow momentum to move you through an action. Particularly, by practicingPilates you actually realign your muscles, so they become more balanced. You truly work your entire body when you practice Pilates as you do not focus on an isolated muscle or set, but actively recruit the smaller muscle groups as well. Finally, since you are not overworking any specific muscle group, you are less likely to get injured.

Concluding, Pilates is a type of exercise that has multiple benefits. Using the Pilates positions and breathing exercises one can focus inward rather than on the outward distractions of life. Pilates is considered a fitness program but also a mental exercise. Uniting mind and body through breathing, Pilates is destined to make people feel better about themselves and attain a better state of health overall.

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Fitness Franchise

If recent media coverage were any indication, it would appear that virtually nobody in the United States has had any success at losing weight. Crash diets, weight loss pills and get-thin-quick gimmicks are more prevalent than ever, yet two-thirds of our population is still overweight. Even more startling is the fact that approximately one-third of the people in our country are clinically obese.

Yet more and more Americans are finding that weight loss success is not only within their grasp, but also actually easier to achieve than they thought possible.

Due to the rapid growth of women-only circuit-training gyms, women in particular are finding that weight loss is an achievable goal. Workouts just for women have become a common sight from sea to shining sea, with the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association reporting that as of July 2005 there were 26,046 health clubs in the United States (a 10.8 percent increase from just six months previous). Women-only circuit training clubs account for more than one out of every three fitness centers in the nation.

Sales at fitness clubs have also been on the rise. In January 2003, the latest figures available, the industry collectively took in $14.1 billion in revenue, a jump from $13.1 billion a year earlier.

Why has the women-only circuit-training exercise model worked so well? The short answer is that it works. Circuit training is a proven exercise system that, for many women, has proven to be more effective than dieting or nutrition programs alone.

The routine at these ladies express gyms is quick and simple, allowing each woman to progress at her own pace. The ladies exercise in a circle, each at a station. They spend 30 or 45 seconds at each station, either working a hydraulic resistance machine or doing aerobics. The entire routine takes 30 minutes.

Pick Up The Pace is one such gym for women that has carefully tracked the success of its members for years. Deanna S., a member of Pick Up The Pace in Libby, MT, lost 14.75 inches in just one month. Kim M. reduced her body-fat by 4.2 percent in just one month at Pick Up The Pace, while at the same time losing 10.75 pounds of fat.

With results like these, it's easy to see why this fitness center concept has skyrocketed in popularity with today's average woman. For perhaps the first time in their lives, women are finding that it's possible to slim down and tone up in only 30 minutes each day.

What many women see as just a great way to achieve some quick weight loss, others see as a business opportunity. Despite the incredible growth of these hydraulic gyms, there seems to be no shortage of customers. As reported by CNN on 1-14-05 "Americans were expected to spend more than $40 billion in 2004 on weight control pills, gym memberships, diet plans and related foods, estimates Marketdata Enterprises, which studies the weight loss industry." Furthermore, statistics from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) indicate that 80 percent of overweight individuals and almost 87 percent of obese individuals are trying to lose or maintain their weight.

As reported by mygoals.com, 80 percent of Americans made a New Year's resolution in 2005. A whopping 26 percent of those resolutions were to improve overall health and fitness, making this the top category for self-improvement. This year was no anomaly, either, according to Amy O'Connor, deputy editor of Prevention magazine: "Fifty-nine million people every year resolve to lose weight."

With so many potential customers, many women seek to start their own circuit-training business only to find themselves discouraged by the typical franchise opportunity. They're finding that a hydraulic gym franchise such as Curves for Women can be expensive, restrictive, and sometimes difficult to purchase.

According to the International Franchise Association, one of the women-only workout franchises recently announced that they are raising their franchise fee from $9,995 to $12,500. Another franchise package costs anywhere from $85,000 to $225,000, including a $36,000 franchise fee and startup cost. Monthly franchise royalty payments, which can range from $395 to $590 per month, place an additional burden on the franchisee. Assuming that the franchise agreement permits the buyer to use the franchise name for 10 years, the gym owner will be paying approximately $60,000 in royalty payments over the franchise term. These figures can scare off many would-be health club owners.

Many women who do opt to open a circuit-training franchise find that the franchise agreement does not grant them the liberty to add amenities as they wish. Many franchise operations restrict their fitness centers by not allowing them to add tanning, nutrition counseling, supplements, vitamins, massage therapy, body wraps or other extras for which ladies are clamoring.

Relying on good old American made ingenuity, many women entrepreneurs are choosing to either open a completely independent workout center or opt for a license package. While going independent carries the inherent risk of having to reinvent the wheel, it still may be the best option for some women. The other option is to capture most of the benefits of a franchise while at the same time avoiding the financial burdens of that system. This is done with a license package, such as the one offered by Pick Up The Pace 30-Minute Workout For Women.

For many women, getting fit, slender and in shape themselves has not only been good for their health but has also prompted them to enter the fitness market as a gym owner. With obesity rates still climbing, this is a trend that may continue for years to come.

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Way to Quit Smoking

The question on every smoker?s yellowing lip will always be "Is there an easy way to quit smoking?? The instant answer to that would be yes, as there is a mountain of anecdotal evidence to suggest it is possible. There are millions of smokers who can testify that they packed in a long-term habit overnight, and never desired another cigarette again. The realquestion then, is how did they do it?

The answer is simple: if you wish to quit smoking easily, then you need to change your mindset. After years of smoking, your brain will be configured to believe that smoking is an integral part of you. As a formersmoker myself, I know full well just how emotionally connected the smoker is to the cigarette, and this is something non-smokers often overlook. It?s not just a question of willpower - it?s about being able to sever the emotional links we have with the habit.

The fact is that nicotine is one of the least physically addictive drug substances out there. We can sleep for eight hours every night without our body waking us up in a cold sweat to smoke, which is more than can be said for a hard drug such as heroin. Although this sounds like a big claim to make, the amount of anecdotal evidence mentioned earlier should be testament to this. The smoking habit is not the nicotine habit - it is the psychologically addictive habit.

The easy way to quit smoking is to shake up the beliefs you associate with smoking. It?s not enough to simply say it?s bad for your health, because that is a rational fact. Smoking breeds irrational, emotional attachments, and it is those attachments which you have to perceive in a different way. Nosmoker is going to argue that smoking is good for their health, but many will claim that a cigarette helps them relax. This is an important difference to compute. Smokers have more irrational beliefs than they would think, and it's these irrational beliefs which have to be turned on their head in order for the habit to be left behind.

This calls upon a great deal of introspection. Head to the cafe with a notepad and pen and start writing about how you feel about smoking. Compare smoking to a girlfriend or boyfriend, if you will, because that?s the level of emotional attachment most smokers will feel towards the habit. Start assessing how you feel about smoking and make a list of all the positives you feel smoking brings to your life. Then try to detach yourself andquestion these "positives?. Before you started smoking you never had any need for these positives, so ask why you need them now.

Ultimately, if you want an easy way to stop smoking, then you need to realise that all that is really required is a re-wiring of your thinking patterns. You do not need gum, patches or any other gimmick. Such gimmicks only give you relief from the physical pain, but give almost nothing to soothe the emotional pain. You need to beat both the physical attachment and, particularly, the emotional attachment. If you can change the way you think about smoking, then you?ve taken a major step forward in your quest to kick the habit for good.

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Know About Hiv

HIV is an abbreviation for Human Immunodeficiency Virus. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome or AIDS as it is generally called, is the result of this virus. When a person has AIDS, the immune system gradually break downs. The patient then becomes highly susceptible to infections and illnesses, which could even, be fatal. History dates its origin to June 5th 1981 in Los Angeles where the virus was found in five homosexual men. It was then called GRID or Gay-Related Immune Deficiency because people thought it only affected homosexual people. This theory was soon blown to pieces when cases were reported from all over. Today, AIDS has reached epidemic proportions. It has plagued most countries around the world and is considered a highly dangerous disease.

To gain a better understanding of HIV, we must first explore how it is transmitted.

a. HIV is a sexually transmitted disease. What does this mean? The mucous membrane lines different parts of the body such as the lips, genital areas, nostrils etc. When the mucous membrane comes in contact with sexual secretions of an infected HIV patient, the virus transfers from one to another. This is why the main cause for the spread of AIDS is unprotected sexual intercourse.

b. HIV is also transmitted through infected blood. Therefore, one has to take extreme precaution when undergoing blood transfusions. It is always advisable to go to a reputed hospital or clinic where infected syringes are not used. Intravenous drug users and hemophiliacs are at high risk to get HIV.

c. HIV can be transmitted from a mother to a child either in the womb, during childbirth or duing breast-feeding. The chances of this happening have been reduced with drugs and other procedures.

Some of the early symptoms include sinusitis, bronchitis, otitis, pharyngitis, weight loss, dry cough, unexplained fatigue, unusual blemishes on the tongue, herpes zoster and oral ulcerations. During the more advanced stages patients may have chronic diarrhea, continuous fever, extreme weight loss, oral hairy leukoplakia and candidiasis and pulmonary tuberculosis.

It is extremely important for people to be tested for HIV. In some communities, partners are required to take the HIV test prior to marriage. This is because it not only affects the infected individual but also can spread to the spouse and the unborn child. It is difficult telling someone you love that you have AIDS. However, is very vital for their health and safety.

Doctors, nurses and Medicare professionals are also exposed to this virus as they deal with syringes and needles on a daily basis. If you have AIDS and if you are looking for a doctor, then do some preliminary research on the doctor before you meet him or her. The doctor should be reliable and must be aware of the nuances of the field. You should choose a doctor who you are comfortable with.

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Symptoms Hiv

HIV is a horrible disease which could hurt not only the person but the whole family so it is very important to be aware of this kind of bloody disease.
Because many people who have been infected with HIV have few or no symptoms initially, testing is the only way to know for sure if you are infected with HIV. There are, however, an assortment of symptoms that can be associated with HIV infection.
when we talk about the,

Symptoms Early After Infection - Acute HIV - In emergency departments and family practice offices, people come in with symptoms like fever, headache, muscle and joint pain, sore throat, rash and diarrhea. In response to these symptoms, physicians diagnose the flu and send the patient on their way. In the majority of cases, their diagnosis proves correct. But unfortunately, a number of people with these vague, indistinct symptoms have a more serious illness than the flu; these symptoms may signal the acute stages of HIV infection.

according to another expert who enalysis this disease.

he says,

HIV, or the human immunodeficiency virus, is a sexually transmitted disease that assails the immune system. The virus attacks your CD4 cells (or T4 cells), which are necessary to fight off illnesses. Eventually, the virus overwhelms the CD4 cells and your body becomes unable to fight off diseases and infections. Once your body's CD4 cell count falls below 200 per cubic millimeter of blood, and/or an opportunistic infection takes hold of your weakened immune system, you will be diagnosed with AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). Symptoms of HIV vary according to what stage of the infection you are in.

Early Symptoms of HIV
The earliest symptoms of HIV infection occur while your body begins to form antibodies to the virus (known as seroconversion) between six weeks and three months after infection with the HIV virus. Those who do show early HIV symptoms will develop flu-like symptoms. This can include: fever, rash, muscles aches and swollen lymph nodes and glands. However, for most people, the first symptoms of HIV will not be apparent.

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Hiv Kits

Approved HIV kits

AIDS is a disease that attacks the immuno system of a person drag equal a road that the body of the easy pickings finds right arduous to contest infections. In homologous individuals, mild and rare diseases arise into formidable conditions. And all this is brought about by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus.
Honest is since of this that HIV tests are today required, which is possible either ended lab tests or stow away the fitness of approved HIV kits. Keep from these approved HIV kits, true is possible to bonanza out if you are suffering from AIDS adumbrate complete anonymity. Physical is for of this that most persons exalt using approved HIV kits than rosy tests to gem out if they are suffering from HIV.

HIV Down home Check Utensils award accurate influence

HIV Inland Inspection Implements is clinically proven and FDA certified to copy now protected, accurate and telling thanks to the tests conducted by doctors, health clinics and hospitals. These HIV kits are facile to convenience for they all come hush up a far-reaching instruction pamphlet dissemble illustrations.
The approved HIV instruments comes screen a dwarf blotter that comes suppress a uncommon 11 character code; and concrete is this code that gives you desolate connection to know stuff counsellors who tear off clear that you appropriateness the HIV At ease Check Instruments properly network conducting your assessment.
Moreover, rightful is completed this code that the contact of the evaluation are sent to you, and not washed-up fraction of your personal counsel. This ensures that no one will know that you had bought and performed an HIV Family Assessment Apparatus.

The integral testing process

All that has to symbolize done to fulfill a examination is to push your finger and put a few drops on the blotter. This blotter inasmuch as has to hold office shipped to the laboratory of the approved HIV kit, since per their procedure. You gratify influence agency 24 hours; all that has to serve done is a phone call to the lab the next day, give your 11 digit code for identification and ask for results.
Whatever the result may be, you can ask for counselling. If results are negative, you can learn how to more careful in the future, and not fall victim to AIDS. And if results are positive, you can find out what treatment options you have and learn about professional post - test aids counselling and medical referrals.

Beware of HIV kits that are not FDA approved

There are many HIV kits available on the market today; however not all of them are FDA approved. There are some kits that say that they can detect antibodies of HIV in saliva and blood samples within 15 minutes.
However these tests are not guaranteed and may not always give the right results. Moreover, they are not FDA approved kits, making them unfit for use. There are even some HIV home test kits that falsely claim to be FDA approved. Always confirm if the HIV kit is approved by looking for the test in a list of FDA approved HIV tests, available on the internet.

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Signs and Symptoms of Hiv

HIV, or the human immunodeficiency virus, is a sexually transmitted disease that assails the immune system. The virus attacks your CD4 cells (or T4 cells), which are necessary to fight off illnesses. Eventually, the virus overwhelms the CD4 cells and your body becomes unable to fight off diseases and infections. Once your body’s CD4 cell count falls below 200 per cubic millimeter of blood, and/or an opportunistic infection takes hold of your weakened immune system, you will be diagnosed with AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome). Symptoms of HIV vary according to what stage of the infection you are in.

Signs and Symptoms of HIV

Symptoms that could serve as warning signals of HIV infection may go ignored because many women do not perceive themselves at risk. Symptoms include recurrent yeast infections (vaginal candidiasis), pelvic inflammatory disease, abnormal changes or dysplasia (growth and presence of precancerous cells) in cervical tissue, genital ulcers, genital warts, and severe mucosal herpes infections may also accompany HIV infection in women.

The first symptoms of HIV infection can resemble symptoms of common cold or flu viruses. The symptoms of early infection can also be similar to the symptoms of other sexually transmitted diseases and other infections such as "mono" or hepatitis, which are much more commonly and more easily transmitted. Stress and anxiety can also produce symptoms in some people, even though they do not have HIV.

HIV is diagnosed by testing your blood or oral mucus for the presence of antibodies to the virus. Unfortunately, HIV tests aren't accurate immediately after infection because it takes time for your immune system to make these antibodies — usually about 12 weeks after infection. Rarely, it can take up to six months for an HIV test to become positive

Skin, mouth, genital symptoms — A characteristic feature of acute HIV infection is open sores or ulcers involving the mucous membranes and skin in certain areas of the body. They may be located in the mouth; the esophagus (throat, which extends from the mouth to the stomach); the anus; or the penis. Ulceration involving the esophagus often causes pain during swallowing. The ulcers tend to be shallow, with sharply defined edges, and are typically swollen and painful.

Everyone has had days where they were feeling a little "blue". We all have been "down in the dumps" or felt "blah" But when these feelings last longer than a couple weeks you may be suffering from depression.

HIV-infected individuals are more prone to severe malaria than non-infected individuals. Malaria also causes a seven-fold increase in the HIV viral load of people with HIV infection. People with HIV infection should therefore take extra precautions when visiting malarial areas.

In most patients, symptoms of HIV begin about two to four weeks after exposure. However, there have been instances in which up to 10 months have passed between exposure and the first signs and symptoms of HIV infection.

Weight loss is a common problem in HIV and AIDS. Unless you are actively trying to lose weight by exercising and watching what you eat, weight loss is a serious problem.

Many illnesses have flu-like symptoms or cause swollen glands. You cannot have HIV unless you have been directly exposed to the virus. HIV can be transmitted during sexual intercourse with an infected person, through contact with infected blood or breastmilk, or during unsafe injections or medical procedures.

More serious symptoms include heavy bleeding if you are injured. Rarely, brain infections such as meningitis can affect people with HIV infection.

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Hiv/aids and Education

HIV/AIDS is the global issue of new era of science and technology and we should know that the problem of widespread AIDS is challenge for human survival. Children and young people need to be equipped with the knowledge, attitudes, values and skills that will help them face these challenges and assist them in making healthy life-style choices as they grow. Education delivered through schools is one of the ways through which children can be helped to face these challenges and make such choices.

Providing information about HIV (transmission, risk factors, how to avoid infection) is necessary, but not sufficient, to lead to healthy behavioral change. Programs that provide accurate information, to counteract the myths and misinformation, frequently report improvements in knowledge and attitudes, but this is poorly correlated with behavioral change related to risk taking and desirable behavioral outcomes. Education can be effective in the more difficult task of achieving and sustaining behavior change about HIV/AIDS. The schools can either be a place that practices discrimination, prejudice and undue fear or one that demonstrates society’s commitment to equity.School policies need to ensure that every child and adolescent has the right to life education; particularly when that education is necessary for survival and avoidance of HIV infection.

HIV infection is one of the major problems facing school-age children today. They face fear if they are ignorant, discrimination if they or a family member or friend is infected, and suffering and death if they are not able to protect themselves from this preventable disease.

It is estimated that 40 million people, worldwide, are living with HIV or have AIDS, at least a third of these are young people aged 15-24. In 1998 more than 3 million young people worldwide became infected including 590,000 children under 15. More than 8,500 children and young people become infected with HIV each day. In many countries over 50% of all infections are among 15-24 years old, who will likely develop AIDS in a period ranging from several months to more than 10 years.

Studies have shown the enormous impact HIV and AIDS have on the education sector and the quality of education provided, particularly in certain regions of the world such as Sub Saharan Africa. Consequences of the AIDS epidemic include a probable decrease in the demand for education, coupled with absenteeism and an increase in the number of orphans and school drop out, especially among girls. Girls are socially and economically more vulnerable to conditions that force people to accept risk of HIV infection in order to survive. A decrease in education for girls will have serious negative effects on progress made over the past decade toward providing an adequate education for girls and women. Reduced numbers of classes or schools, a shortage of teachers and other personnel, and shrinking resources for educational systems all impair the prospects for education.

Effective HIV/AIDS education and prevention is needed in all schools for all children so that no one is left ignorant. Yet in many places schools are apprehensive about providing sex education or discussions of sexuality because of cultural demands to protect adolescents from sexual experience. Women often lack skills needed to communicate their concerns with their sexual partners and to practice behaviors that reduce their risk of infection, such as condom use, which is often controlled by men.

The school can either be a place that practices discrimination, prejudice and undue fear or one that demonstrates society’s commitment to equity. School policies need to ensure that every child and adolescent has the right to HIV/AIDS education; particularly when that education is necessary for survival and avoidance of HIV infection.

A UNAIDS review (1997) of 53 studies which assessed the effectiveness of programs to prevent HIV infection and related health problems among young people concluded that sex education programs do not lead to earlier or increased sexual activity among young people, in fact the opposite seems to be true. 22 reported that HIV and/or sexual health education either delayed the onset of sexual activity, reduced the number of sexual partners or reduced unplanned pregnancies and STD rates. 27 studies reported that HIV/AIDS and sexual health neither increased nor decreased sexual activity, pregnancy or STD.

The review concluded that school based interventions are an effective way to reduce risk behaviors associated with HIV/AIDS/STD among children and adolescents.

There are three main objectives for this paper to integrate the education effectively with the HIV/AIDS preventions and other health aspects related with it.

These are as follows:

Objectives:

1) Health education focusing on HIV/AIDS prevention.

2) Raising awareness about HIV/AIDS among educators and learners.

3) Stimulate peer support and HIV/AIDS counseling in schools.

The main focus of the paper is to give the importance to the HIV/AIDS precaution with the health education raising the awareness about it among all the students as well as their teachers also and provide the supportive environment for the HIV/AIDS education for all.

Need of HIV/AIDS education:

In area such as HIV/AIDS prevention individual behavior, social and peer pressure, cultural norms and abusive relationships may all contribute to the health and lifestyle problems of children and adolescents. There is now increasing evidence that in tackling these issues and health problems, a healthy approach to HIV/AIDS and sex education works, and is more effective than teaching knowledge alone. T

here are numerous studies indicating that providing information about issues such as sex, STDs (Sexually Transmitted Diseases) and HIV (transmission, risk factors, how to avoid infection) is necessary, but not sufficient, to lead to healthy behavioral change (Hubley, 2000). Programs that provide accurate information, to counteract the myths and misinformation, frequently report improvements in knowledge and attitudes, but this is poorly correlated with behavioral change related to risk taking and desirable behavioral outcomes (Gatawa 1995, UNAIDS 1997a). HIV/AIDS with health education can be effective in the more difficult task of achieving and sustaining behavior change.

Health education with HIV/AIDS is widely applicable:

This problems largely affecting men and women as well as older children and adolescents, both this age group and younger children also face a wider range of health problems where education can play a vital role in sustainable prevention and management. Health education with HIV/AIDS programs plays a vital role in preventing infections. This is done through promoting knowledge of areas such as symptoms, transmission, and behaviors that are specifically relevant to many infection in each community; attitudes such as responsibility for personal, family and community health, confidence to change unhealthy habits; skills such as avoiding behaviors that are likely to cause infection, encourage others to change unhealthy habits, communicate messages about infection to families, peers and members of the community (WHO, 1996).

This kind of health education with HIV/AIDS prevention focuses upon the development of Knowledge, Attitudes, Values, and Skills (including life skills such as inter-personal skills, critical and creative thinking, decision making and self awareness) needed to make and act on the most appropriate and positive health-related decisions. Health in this context extends beyond physical health to include psycho-social and environmental health issues.

This approach utilizes student centered and participatory methodologies, giving participants the opportunity to explore and acquire health promoting knowledge, attitudes and values and to practice the skills they need to avoid risky and unhealthy situations and adopt and sustain healthier life styles.

HIV/AIDS – a critical need for health education:

HIV/AIDS is an area where the scale and impact of the problem is such that the urgency of implementing preventative measures, including health education, is critical. Health education programs are being increasingly adopted as means of reaching children and young people to help halt the spread of this crippling epidemic. Studies from African countries show that children between the ages of 5 and 14 have the lowest prevalence of HIV infection. Below the age of 5 they are susceptible to mother to child transmission and after they become sexually active, the rate of infection increases rapidly – especially for girls (Kelly, 2000). Children aged 5-14 need to be reached at this critical stage in their lives and offer the ‘window of hope’ in stopping the spread of HIV/AIDS.

Health Education with HIV/AIDS prevention Does Change Behavior:

There is now strong evidence from an increasing number of studies that health education HIV/AIDS prevention applied in an appropriate context, changes behavior – including behavior in sensitive and difficult areas where knowledge based health education has failed.

For example: Sexuality and HIV education –USA:

This study was implemented in 4 schools in New York City with 9th and 11th grade students (867 students), in intervention (AIDS prevention program) and control classes (no AIDS prevention program). The program focused on correcting facts about AIDS, teaching cognitive skills to appraise risk of transmission, increasing knowledge of AIDS-prevention resources, changing perceptions of risk-taking behavior, clarifying personal values, understanding external influences and teaching skills to delay intercourse and/or consistently use condoms. An evaluation carried out three months after the end of the program found that the intervention group showed the following positive behavioral outcomes when compared with the control group: decrease in intercourse with high risk partners, increase in monogamous relationships and an increase in consistent condom use. (Walter & Vaughan, 1993).

HIV/AIDS prevention-Nigeria:

Health education programs are being implemented in many schools in Nigeria to increase levels of knowledge, influence attitudes and encourage safe sexual practices among secondary school students. A study to evaluate one such program was conducted comparing 223 students who received comprehensive sexual health education with 217 controls. Students in the intervention group received 6 weekly sessions lasting 2-6 hours, with activities including lectures, film shows, role-play stories, songs, debates, essays and a demonstration of the correct use of condoms. Following the intervention, students in the intervention group showed a greater knowledge and increased tolerance of people with AIDS compared to the control. The mean number of sexual partners also decreased in the intervention group, while the control group showed a slight increase. The program was also successful in increasing condom use (Fawole et al., 1999) Above mentioned studies shows that health education with HIV/AIDS prevention does change the behavior of students especially adolescents.

Method for implementing Health Education with HIV/AIDS prevention:

Although there is strong evidence that HIV/AIDS prevention is effective when properly applied and supported, implementing this approach and achieving this success on a larger, countrywide scale is one of the greatest challenges to be faced.

To be effective, HIV/AIDS prevention programs must address the following areas:

•Reassure stakeholders that these messages are beneficial:

Talking and teaching about reproductive health and HIV/AIDS issues does not result in earlier initiation of sex or promiscuity. The evidence suggests that well implemented skills-based programs, conducted in an atmosphere of free discussion of all the issues, is likely to lead to young people delaying the initiation of intercourse and reducing the frequency of intercourse and number of sexual partners (Kirby et al. 1994, UNAIDS 1997a).

•Provide support to teachers: The lack of support for implementation of new programs is one of the most important factors affecting success. For most teachers both the content and methods of HIV/AIDS prevention programs are new and perhaps sensitive, and yet the approach has great potential to assist teachers both in their work and also their personal lives since HIV/AIDS is, of course, also affecting teachers. Sufficient support, training, practice and time needs to be available to teachers, in both pre- and in-service training sessions and workshops, to facilitate reflection and development of their own attitudes, and to motivate them to apply their new knowledge and skills, rather than continue with the more didactic, traditional teaching methods, which are often focused on information alone (Gatawa 1995, Gachuhi 1999). In addition, sufficient time and an appropriate place must also be given in the curriculum so that all students have access to HIV/AIDS prevention.

•Start early: As well as targeting adolescents, programs need to be targeted at children at an early age, with developmentally appropriate messages, before they leave school (Gachuhi 1999, Partnership for Child Development 1998). Because younger children are generally not sexually active, these programs will address the building blocks for healthy living and avoiding risk, rather than the very specific issues related to sexual relationships and HIV/AIDS which are progressively introduced to programs for older ages. However, the large number and diverse age range of children within primary schools is an enduring challenge, especially when addressing sensitive issues. Active and self-directed learning methods which are commonly used in education can be helpful in overcoming these classroom management issues to some extent.

•Provide a supportive environment: Schools need to have strong policies and a healthy supportive environment in terms of behavior of students towards each other, teachers and school personnel. Sexual abuse can occur in schools, with both boys and girls reporting abuse by school staff (Kinsman et al. 1999, Lowensen et al. 1996). Programs need to address this potential problem by training and supporting teachers, so that they can become role models rather than neutral or adverse figures in relation to sexual behavior.

•Respond to local needs: Many of the models for HIV/AIDS prevention have been developed in western, developed countries. The available evidence from developing countries, although more limited in scope than the studies from non-developing countries, supports skills-based health education for HIV/AIDS and reproductive health (Hubley, 2000). The main issue is that wherever programs are to be implemented they must be shaped to meet the local socio-cultural norms, values and religious beliefs, and need to include ongoing monitoring (Kirby et al 1994, UNAIDS 1999, Kinsman et al.1999).

Elements of a Health Education for HIV/AIDS prevention:

Reviews of school-based HIV/AIDS prevention programs (23 studies in the USA (Kirby et al. 1994), 37 other countries (reported in UNAIDS 1999) and 53 studies in USA, Europe and elsewhere (UNAIDS 1997a) have identified the following common characteristics of successful programs:

1.Focus on a few specific behavioral goals, (such as delaying initiation of intercourse or using protection), which requires knowledge, attitude and skill objectives.

2.Provision of basic, accurate information that is relevant to behavior change, especially the risks of unprotected intercourse and methods of avoiding unprotected intercourse. 3.Reinforcement of clear and appropriate values to strengthen individual values and group norms against unprotected sex.

4.Modeling and practice in communication and negotiation skills particularly, as well as other related “life skills”.

5.Use of Social Learning theories as a foundation for program development.

6.Addressing social influences on sexual behaviors, including the important role of media and peers.

7.Use of participatory activities (games, role playing, group discussions etc.) to achieve the objectives of personalizing information, exploring attitudes and values, and practicing skills.

8.Extensive training for teachers/implementers to allow them to master the basic information about HIV/AIDS and to practice and become confident with life skills training methods.

9.Support for reproductive health and HIV/STD prevention programs by school authorities, decision and policy makers, as well as the wider community.

10.Evaluation (e.g. of outcomes, design, implementation, sustainability, school, student and community support) so that programs can be improved and successful practices encouraged.

11.Age-appropriateness, targeting students in different age groups and developmental stages with appropriate messages that are relevant to young people. For example one goal of targeting younger students, who are not yet sexually active, might be to delay the initiation of intercourse, whereas for sexually active students the emphasis might be to reduce the number of sexual partners and use condoms.

12.Gender sensitive, for both boys and girls.

Conclusions:

Health Education with HIV/AIDS prevention offers an effective approach to equipping children and young people with the knowledge, attitudes and skills that they need to help them avoid risk taking behavior and adopt healthier life styles. The scope of health education means that it can be applied to a wide range of areas, especially STDs and HIV/AIDS prevention, but also including violence, substance abuse, unwanted situations such as early pregnancy and all areas where knowledge and attitudes play a critical role in promoting a healthy lifestyle for children and young people growing up in the 21st century. We can sum it in following points- •The constitutional rights of learners and educators must be protected equally.

•There should not be compulsory disclosure of HIV/AIDS status.

•No HIV positive learner or educator may be discriminated against.

•Learners must receive education about HIV/AIDS and abstinence in the context of life- skills education as part of the integrated curriculum.

•Educational institutions should ensure that learners acquire age and context appropriate knowledge and skills to enable them to behave in ways that will protect them from infection.

•Educators need more knowledge of, and skills to deal with HIV/AIDS and should be trained to give guidance on HIV/AIDS.

Suggestions for implications for policies and programmes:

•Male and female condom promotion efforts need to recognize, identify and address gender issues including sexual and other forms of violence, that inhibit condom use.

•HIV/AIDS, peer education, and sex education programmes for adolescents that incorporate gender equality issues into their framework should be fostered. Such programmes should enable a better understanding of how norms related to masculinity and femininity may increase risky sexual behaviour, and help young people begin thinking about how to work towards equal and responsible relationships.

•Voluntary Counselling and Testing (VCT) services should take into account the risk of violence and other adverse consequences when evaluating different approaches to disclosure. For example, patients can be given the choice of counsellor-mediated disclosure if that would help minimise adverse consequences.

•Both men and women should be involved in Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMtCT) programmes. Antenatal services can educate men about sexuality, fertility and HIV prevalence to raise their awareness and sense of responsibility. This would avoid reinforcing the belief that women alone are responsible for pregnancy and for HIV transmission
to the infant.

•Community Home Based Care (CBBC) approaches need to include a special effort to promote the role of men as care-givers in the family and community, and to provide adequate support and guidance to enable male participation. At the very least, such programmes should acknowledge that reliance on “home care” is, at present, largely reliance on “women’s care”.

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